Barriers to Learning – Understanding the Four Ds: Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Dysgraphia & Dyspraxia

Parents, guardians, and teachers often hear terms such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, and dyspraxia, and may not know or understand the differences. These are neurodevelopmental differences that create specific barriers to learning. Understanding how they differ helps adults recognise challenges and provide better support.

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is primarily a language-based learning difficulty that affects reading, spelling, and word recognition. It is not linked to low intelligence but to how the brain processes written language (Castles, A., Rastle, K. & Nation, K., 2018; Shaywitz, S.E., 2020). Although dyslexia is not a maths disorder, it can affect maths learning because maths often requires comprehension of written instructions and language-based reasoning. Children with dyslexia may find it challenging to interpret word problems or follow multi-step instructions in maths tasks (Butterworth, 2019).

Children may also:

• Struggle to decode words (letter-sound matching)
• Read slowly or inaccurately
• Find spelling particularly difficult
• Confuse similar-looking words (Mayo Clinic, 2024)

It is important to note that when maths difficulties stem from challenges with number sense, calculation, or spatial relationships, this may point to dyscalculia, which is a separate condition. However, dyslexia and dyscalculia can sometimes overlap, so careful assessment is essential (Miller & Mercer, 1997).

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia involves difficulty understanding numbers, patterns, and mathematical concepts. Children may have trouble with counting, learning basic maths facts, or understanding place value (Butterworth, 2019). This difficulty can affect daily tasks such as telling time, handling money, or estimating quantities. Early identification allows educators to provide visual aids and step-by-step instruction.

Dysgraphia

Dysgraphia affects writing skills and the ability to express thoughts clearly on paper. Children may struggle with letter formation, spacing, and written organisation (Berninger & Wolf, 2016). They might avoid writing tasks or take longer to complete written work. Support often includes fine motor practice, typing alternatives, and structured writing guidance.

Dyspraxia

Dyspraxia, or Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), impacts motor coordination and planning. Children may find it difficult to perform tasks that require movement, balance, or coordination (Kirby & Sugden, 2007). This can affect activities such as tying shoelaces, handwriting, or participating in sports. Occupational therapy and supportive teaching strategies can help children develop these skills.

While many children may display some of these traits, only a qualified educational psychologist can diagnose these learning differences. A proper assessment ensures that the child receives the right support and intervention to reach their full potential.

References

Berninger, V.W. & Wolf, B.J. (2016). Teaching Students with Dyslexia and Dysgraphia: Lessons from Teaching and Science. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Butterworth, B. (2019). Dyscalculia: From Science to Education. London: Routledge.

Castles, A., Rastle, K. & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition from Novice to Expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51.

Kirby, A. & Sugden, D. (2007). Children with Developmental Coordination Disorders. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 100(4), 182–186.

Mayo Clinic. (2024). Dyslexia: Symptoms and Causes. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/

Miller, S.P. & Mercer, C.D. (1997). Educational Aspects of Mathematics Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(1), 47–56.

Shaywitz, S.E. (2020). Overcoming Dyslexia. 2nd ed. New York: Knopf.